Theory of Reciprocal Determinism

This lesson provides a definition of the psychological theory or reciprocal determinism, developed by Albert Bandura, and provides examples of how this theory works in our social world.

Behavior

Do you find yourself acting differently depending on who you are with? Do you even notice that you act differently depending on your environment? Do you change your behavior when, say, your teacher or your boss is in the room? The psychologist Albert Bandura also took notice of this and set out to figure out why. Bandura, who was born in 1925, came up with a noted theory to explain human behavior, known as reciprocal determinism. Bandura's work comes out of a tradition in psychology known as social-cognitive theory, which takes an agentic approach, or one that focuses on people and their choices.

Theory of Reciprocal Determinism

Do you act the way you do because of your personality or because of your environment? According to Bandura? It's likely both.
Ever heard of Pandora's box, from ancient Greek mythology? Well, Bandura has his own box, in the form of an experiment that came to be known as 'Bandura's Box.' In this experiment, Bandura found that school children who witnessed aggressive play were much more likely to act that way in turn. This set off a light-bulb in Bandura's mind: does the environment play an important role in shaping our behavior?
Bandura's theory argues that three things are responsible for the way we act: the individual, the environment and the actual behavior. Think of this as a 3-piece puzzle we can put together.
The individual piece of the puzzle involves things like your personality, beliefs and unique characteristics. It also includes things like, whether you been rewarded for a certain behavior in a certain situation in the past. If so, you're likely to repeat that scenario.
The environment includes your physical surroundings and stimuli, such as other people or objects in the environment, that influence your behavior. The environment can influence the frequency of a behavior or how likely we are to keep doing something.
The behavior piece of the puzzle consists of the act you are doing (or things you are saying) that may or may not be reinforced, depending on where you are and who you are with.
So, Albert Bandura believes that these three factors are interrelated, and our personality is determined by the interrelationship among them. That's where the term 'reciprocal determination' comes from. Our personality is determined by the way these categories interact, or reciprocate to one another. For example, we might choose our environment (such as where we live or work), and that environment determines much about how we act. But, it was our individual characteristics (such as our goals or beliefs) that led us to choose this environment in the first place.

Examples

Let's say it's your first day of college, and your first class is in a giant lecture hall. Normally, you're shy and quiet and prefer to sit in the back of the room to avoid any unwanted attention. This has a lot to do with your qualities as an individual. However, when you get into the room, you see someone from your dorm who waves you over to an empty seat next to her, right in the front of the lecture hall. You take the seat next to your friend from the dorm. This is because the environment provides a stimuli - your friend in the front - and this has changed your behavior.
We can also think of instances where this might have more negative consequences. For example, if a person cuts in line in a shopping center, this might cause another person to react very aggressively towards the person who cut in line, who in turn might respond to the stimuli - in this case, the aggressive person - and act aggressively himself.

Lesson Summary

Why do we act the way we do? This might seem like a simple question, but the psychologist Albert Bandura spent quite a bit of time trying to figure it out. He came up with a theory that suggests the individual, the environment and the response to a behavior all work together to shape the way we act. This is called reciprocal determinism. For example, when you enter a dinner party and everyone is talking quietly, you're probably not going to yell to your friends. Instead, the environment will guide your decision to talk quietly with everyone else. An important take-away here is that the environment and the individual influence one another. So, rather than thinking that the environment wholly determines our behavior, we should think about how it's one piece of what makes us act the way we do.

Self-Efficacy: Definition & Theory

Learn what self-efficacy is and how it affects your motivation to accomplish specific tasks. Learn about Albert Bandura's contribution to the concept of self-efficacy and how it has shaped contemporary psychology.

The Power of Self-Efficacy

There is an old and frequently told story of a track coach who wanted to teach his team to run faster. No matter what the coach did, no one seemed able to beat his or her best time. One night, unbeknownst to the team, the coach moved the finish line, effectively making the track 10 feet longer. The next day, the runners clocked slower times than they usually did (because the track was now 10 feet longer). Discouraged, because they knew they could do better, the runners practiced and practiced until they could again achieve their old times. At this point, the coach let them in on the secret that he had moved the finish line and informed them that they were now running faster. The coach demonstrated that, when the runners thought they couldn't go any faster, they didn't, and when they knew they could do better, they did. The coach proved the power of self-efficacy.

Bandura's Self-Efficacy

Psychologist Albert Bandura defined self-efficacy as an individual's belief that he or she will be able to accomplish a specific task. He believed that an essential component to accomplishing something is our confidence that we can. Bandura referred to self-efficacy as the mind's self-regulatory function; it tells us when to try and when to stop. If you do not believe something is possible, you are less likely to attempt the task and more likely to give up early if you do.
Self-efficacy drives your motivation; just as you have different degrees of motivation depending on the task, so also do you have different levels of self-efficacy. You may have high self-efficacy when it comes to your job because you have done it for a long time. You may have low self-efficacy in regards to school because you struggled to make passing grades. The level of self-efficacy you have when you begin a task has a great deal to do with whether you will successfully complete it.

The Four Sources of Self-Efficacy

It's a logical assumption that, if completing an activity is related to our belief that we can accomplish the task, then increasing our self-efficacy should enable us to be more successful at finishing the things we attempt. This begs the question, 'Where does self-efficacy come from?' If we can understand where self-efficacy comes from, then we can take steps to increase it.
According to Bandura, self-efficacy is a constantly evolving process from childhood to old age. Self-efficacy increases as an individual becomes more confident that he or she can accomplish a task. Some tasks, such as academic achievement or athletic ability, tend to reinforce self-efficacy when you are a child. Other activities, such as musical intelligence or public-speaking ability, tend to reinforce self-efficacy as you grow into adulthood. Bandura claimed that there were four sources for self-efficacy: mastery, modeling, persuasion, and physiological factors. To improve your self-efficacy, it is necessary to address one or more of these sources.

Mastery Experiences

Bandura believed that the best way to develop self-efficacy toward a particular task was through mastery of the subject. Success leads toward additional successes, and failure can cast doubt on the outcome of future attempts. When you succeed at something, you are more likely to attempt it again.

Social Modeling

Knowing that a task is doable is key to successfully completing it. Most people are unlikely to undertake activities they believe are impossible. Bandura wrote that seeing others similar to yourself succeed reinforces the belief that you can also accomplish the same task.

Verbal Persuasion

Receiving positive feedback from others is a great way to build self-efficacy. When someone tells you that you've done a good job, you are likely to remember the praise and repeat the activity in the future. Bandura also taught that receiving negative feedback has a greater effect on lowering self-efficacy than receiving positive feedback has on raising it.

Physiological factors

Many people believe they experience anxiety and stress as a result of their low self-efficacy. Sometimes, it's the other way around; anxiety and stress can be the cause of their low self-efficacy. Your mood and stress levels have a lot to do with how likely you are to be successful at a particular task. If your mood is down, your confidence and self-efficacy are also typically low.

Self-Efficacy in Practice

Although best known for his work in cognitive psychology, Bandura's theories have touched virtually every contemporary school of thought used today. Self-efficacy theory has been adopted by numerous mental professionals, including humanistic psychologists, cognitive psychologists, Gestaltists, and psychoanalysts. Self-efficacy theory is used in the treatment of substance abuse, phobias, personality disorders, and mood disorders, to name just a few applications.
In addition to the mental health field, self-efficacy has worked into the mainstream with numerous applications found across multiple disciplines. Self-efficacy techniques are used by hospitals to expedite patient recovery, in weight-loss clinics to facilitate change, and in business to motivate employees. Many people believe that Bandura's theories have touched and altered more lives than any other psychology theory thus far.

Self-Directed Learning: Definition & Strategies

Wendy has a Ph.D. in Adult Education and a Master's Degree in Business Management. She has 10 years experience working in higher education.

Self-directed learning is a type of instructional strategy where students take charge of their learning process. This lesson will discuss components, benefits, and teaching strategies of self-directed learning.

What is Self-Directed Learning?

Self-directed learning (SDL) is an instructional strategy where the students, with guidance from the teacher, decide what and how they will learn. It can be done individually or with group learning, but the overall concept is that students take ownership of their learning.
For example, a teacher may give a general learning goal, such as to learn about a geographical area. Students would then work with the teacher to decide the scope of the project, length of time, and the end result that would demonstrate their learning. One student may decide to learn all of South America and create an educational website. Another student may choose to research the deforestation effects of Borneo and write a report for the government. Another student may choose a specific city and focus on the historical significance, creating a video vignette from personal interviews. By allowing students to choose different learning objectives and outcomes, it allows students to choose based on their personal interests and strengths.

Components of Self-Directed Learning

There are quite a few components involved in SDL. They include management and monitoring, assessing learning needs, collaboration, and self-evaluation.

• Management and monitoring

Students, with guidance from the teacher, define the learning goals they wish to accomplish as well as negotiate a time frame for completion. Once they are established, students identify their strengths and weaknesses as well as any obstacles to achieving their goals. The teacher takes on a supporting and advising role while students manage their own learning process and monitor their own progress.

• Assessing learning needs

Students assess their needs as they progress through the learning process. They will need to find out what resources they need, either materials or help from the teacher or a combination of both. Teachers will then provide support to help them obtain those resources.

• Collaboration

Ironic as this component may sound, it is a very important part of the students' learning process in self-directed learning. Students collaborate with other students in their class, students in other grades, or even adults out in the community to gain knowledge and experience and reach their learning objectives.

• Self-evaluation

After students have gone through the process and have finished the assignment, students should reflect and evaluate their results. Students should get input from other students as well as the teacher to find areas that may need improvement.

Teaching Strategies in Self-Directed Learning

While the student is responsible for most of the SDL process, teachers still have a role to play in a self-directed learning environment. Before students become self-directed learners, teachers must:

• Assess whether or not students are ready to undertake self-directed learning.
• Find out students' daily needs and interests, and design lesson plans and assignments that relate to those aspects of students' lives, therefore making learning relevant and enjoyable for the students.
• Encourage students to become independent and take responsibility for their learning, while remaining available to help and support the students.
• Ensure students understand the importance of reflection and the self-evaluation process.
• Be available to discuss the end results with students, either individually or as a class-wide discussion.

Benefits of Self-Directed Learning

As you may have gleaned from the list of its components, self-directed learning can benefit students in many ways. A few such benefits can develop the student in the following way:

• Motivation

Since self-directed learners must motivate themselves to continue working on their assignment, they develop a strong motivation to take on new challenges and tend to stay motivated for the duration of the assignment and see it to the end.

• Responsibility

Self-directed learners also develop a strong sense of responsibility. Since they are setting and managing the goal, they tend to feel more responsible for their own learning and to meet specified deadlines.

• Curiosity

Because students must solve problems and find resources on their own, they tend to be more curious and more willing to try new ideas and methods. This also develops problem-solving skills and creativity.

• Sociability

Self-directed learning encourages collaborative learning, whereby students work with their classmates and others who may have relevant knowledge and experience to offer. In doing so, students not only learn resourcefulness, but they also develop social skills and gain valuable experience.

• Independence

Students in SDL environments learn to accomplish tasks and achieve goals on their own and independent from any constant source of assistance. All the other benefits combine and culminate in students' independence and self-reliance when faced with challenges.
These are only a few benefits of SDL. These valuable skills can be developed over time and used in life, especially when faced with challenges and difficulties.
By following these simple yet important strategies, teachers in self-directed learning environments can help students succeed.

Lesson Summary

Self-directed learning, or SDL, is a relatively new alternative to the traditional lecture-based classroom. In a self-directed learning environment, teachers set up the parameters for the assignment, helping to establish clear learning objectives, then take on an exclusively supporting role. Students in an SDL environment learn to manage their goals and monitor their own progress and challenge themselves while staying motivated. They assess their learning needs and find the needed resources to achieve their objectives. These are all qualities that will benefit the student to be independent learners.

The Role of Motivation in Self-Regulated Learning

Do you monitor and evaluate your own learning? Do you alter the way you study based on performance on assessments? If so, you are engaging in self-regulation practices and, by doing so, increasing the likelihood of academic achievement. This lesson will define self-regulation, discuss the cyclical process of self-regulation and explore methods to promote self-regulation in the classroom.

Introduction to Self-Regulation

Ideal student: 'You look upset. That is probably not the grade you were expecting. Do you ever try to evaluate the way you are learning to see if there might be a better way?'
Less-than-ideal student: 'What are you talking about?'
Ideal student: 'I'm talking about the process of self-regulation. Haven't you heard of it before?'

Self-Regulation Defined

Self-regulation is the process in which students activate, take control of and evaluate their own learning.
Self-regulation is not the same as motivation. Although motivation and self-regulation share some common elements, there are some critical differences. In motivation, choice (specifically referring to autonomy and control over the situation) does not have to be central to the construct. Self-regulation, however, requires some degree of choice or intentional selection of strategies designed to help the learner achieve a goal or behavior.
Self-regulated learners:

• Are aware of their strengths and weaknesses
• Utilize metacognitive strategies, for example, questioning one's learning and monitoring one's learning, to approach academic tasks
• Attribute their success or failure to factors within their control

Self-Regulation as a Process

Self-regulation is a cyclical process. Students who are motivated to reach a certain goal will engage in self-regulatory activities they feel will help them achieve that goal. The self-regulation promotes learning, which leads to a perception of greater competence, which sustains motivation toward the goal and to future goals. The specific stages of self-regulation will be covered more in-depth later in this lesson.

Dimensions of Self-Regulation

Researchers identified three critical dimensions, or characteristics, of self-regulation:

• Self-observation
• Self-judgment
• Self-reaction

Self-observation refers to the deliberate monitoring of one's activities. Self-observation may take the form of recording frequency, duration or quality of a behavior. Self-observation is also critical to the regulation of performance. Self-observation may also lead to higher motivation.
For example, if you realize your study habits were causing you to perform poorly on these tests, you may adjust the way you study, leading to higher test grades and more motivation to continue to improve your study habits.
A second critical dimension of self-regulation is self-judgment. Self-judgment refers to evaluating one's current performance levels compared to the goal level.
The third critical dimension is self-reaction. Self-reaction refers to one's behavioral, cognitive and affective responses to self-judgments. Self-reactions can be motivating if one believes they are making progress toward their goal. Negative self-evaluations are not necessarily demotivating if one believes they can still make changes and progress toward their goal.

Self-Regulation Cycle

Self-regulation is a cyclical process because during the process of self-evaluation and monitoring, the learner will make alterations to strategies, cognition and behaviors that will the alter learning and ultimately, the end-goal.
There are three phases of the self-regulation cycle:

• Forethought
• Performance (volitional) control
• Self-reflection

Self-regulation begins with the forethought phase. This pre-action phase refers to the processes that set up the learner for action toward their goal. This phase helps the learner to establish a positive outlook, set realistic expectations and address questions such as: 'When will the work begin? What conditions will help or hinder learning activities toward the goal?' and 'How often will tasks be completed toward the goal?' Short-term and long-term goal-planning occur in this stage.
The next stage is the performance- (or volitional-) control phase. This phase involves processes that occur during learning that affect action and attention. Specific strategies are established during this stage in order to help a learner be successful. Metacognitive strategies are identified, preliminary self-evaluation occurs and motivational strategies are identified. Questions such as: 'Am I accomplishing as much as I thought I would? Am I being distracted?' and 'What will motivate me to continue working?' are common questions during this phase.
The final stage is the self-reflection phase. During this stage, learners reflect on their performance. Did they accomplish the goals they set forth? Were there hurdles? Did the learner overcome those hurdles successfully? If the outcomes were positive, the learner will continue to use the methods established to set and proceed toward future goals. If the outcomes were negative, the learner will re-evaluate and make necessary adjustments for future goals.

Influences on Self-Regulation

There are several types of influences on self-regulation.
Social and external influences are:

• Modeling (which is observed behaviors of others that lead to academic success)
• Verbal description (which is verbal instruction from others describing the processes that made them successful in their goal achievement)
• Social guidance
• Feedback

Internal influences are:

• One's own internal standards for success and failure
• Self-reinforcement, for example, rewarding oneself after completing a certain amount of work or studying
• One's self-efficacy beliefs

Teaching Self-Regulation

Self-regulation can be taught and promoted by educators. Self-regulation is different for every learner, so a variety of strategies and motivations should be used in the classroom. Some examples of methods to promote self-regulation include:

Explicit Instruction and Direction

In this case, educators can teach metacognitive strategies to their students to make them aware of the different methods to study and learn. For example, educators can teach students how to read and ask questions of themselves to promote comprehension and understanding of the materials. They can also show them how to create checklists and self-quizzes to monitor learning.

Indirect Modeling

Another method to promote self-regulation is indirect modeling. Educators can use classroom activities, such as journaling, to teach students to be self-reflective.

Teach Students to Track Their Progress

Educators can also show students how to track their progress. They can show students how to chart academic progress and note any areas of strengths or weaknesses that should be addressed.

Lesson Summary

In summary, self-regulation is the process of activating, taking control of and evaluating one's learning and behaviors. Self-regulation requires a degree of choice or intentional selection of strategies by the learner.
Self-regulated learners are aware of their strengths and weaknesses; they utilize metacognitive strategies and attribute their successes or failures to factors within their control.
Self-regulation involves self-observation, self-judgment and self-reaction, and is a cyclical process with three continual phases.
Self-regulation can be influenced by internal factors, such as one's own self-efficacy beliefs, and external factors, such as social guidance and feedback from others. Educators can promote self-regulation through explicit instruction, indirect modeling and promoting practices of metacognition.

Vygotsky's Cultural-Historical Theory

The role of culture and social interactions are imperative to cognitive development, according to psychologist, Lev Vygotsky. This lesson will discuss how social interactions play a role in cognitive development of children, provide an overview of Vygotsky's cultural-historical theory and describe the stages of speech and language development.

Introduction

A young child and her father are playing with a shapes toy. The young child alone cannot figure out how the various shapes can fit into the designated holes. Her father describes how each shape can only fit into its same shaped hole. The father offers her encouragement and helps her put a few pieces in their respective hole. As the child grasps the concepts, the father allows her to complete the task alone. This is an example of interaction influencing the cognitive development of a child. This lesson will focus on these social interactions and their impacts of cognitive development, according to the psychologist, Lev Vygotsky.

Vygotsky's Cultural-Historical Theory Overview

Lev Vygotsky's, cultural-historical theory of cognitive development is focused on the role of culture in the development of higher mental functions, such as speech and reasoning in children. His theory is sometimes referred to as having a sociocultural perspective, which means the theory emphasizes the importance of society and culture for promoting cognitive development.

Vygotsky emphasized the role of social interactions and culture in development

Vygotsky believed that adults in a society foster children's cognitive development in an intentional and systematic manner by engaging them in challenging and meaningful activities. We will return to our introductory example throughout this lesson to illustrate the principles of Vygotsky's theory. In our intro, the father intentionally engaged with his child to help her understand how to fit the blocks into the designated holes. Without this assistance, she would have continued to be unsuccessful. But with the meaningful directions from her father, she was able to successfully get the blocks into the holes herself.

Assumptions of Vygotsky's Theory

Six major assumptions guide Vygotsky's theory. We will discuss each one generally. Some assumptions will be covered in greater detail in other lessons in this course.

1. The first assumption of Vygotsky's theory is that through both informal and formal conversations and education adults convey to children the way their culture interprets and responds to the world. Specifically, as adults interact with children, they show the meanings they attach to objects, events and experiences. Returning to our example, the father is now reading to his daughter a book about transportation. The book describes the different modes of transportation we use in our society (such as cars, trucks and boats). By presenting these concepts, the book shows the little girl how our society classifies modes of transportation.
2. The second assumption of Vygotsky's theory is that thought and language become increasingly independent in the first few years of life. We will talk specifically about language and speech development later in this lesson.
3. The third assumption explains that complex mental processes begin as social activities. As children develop, they gradually internalize processes they use in social contexts and begin to use them independently. This internalization process allows children to transform ideas and processes to make them uniquely their own. Returning to our example, the child and father are simply reading a book, but this social activity is transforming the way the child perceives modes of transportation. She will begin to classify these items herself when she sees cars, trucks and boats in real-life settings.

Adults provide instructional guidance to help children accomplish cognitive tasks

1. Vygotsky also introduced the idea that children can perform more challenging tasks when assisted by more advanced and competent individuals. Vygotsky identified two levels of development: actual development, which is the upper limit of tasks a child can perform individually, and level of potential development, which is the upper limit of tasks a child can perform with the assistance of a more competent individual. According to Vygotsky, in order to get a true assessment of a child's actual and potential development, we should assess capabilities both when the child is performing the activity alone and with a more competent individual. For example, our young child exhibited that her actual development was that she knew the blocks belonged in the holes, but she couldn't quite determine how to actually put them in. Her level of potential development was being able to put the blocks in with the help of her father, an advanced individual. We would not expect the child to then be able to sort the blocks into colors and shapes, or to do anything beyond these skills that she exhibited with the assistance of her father at this point.
2. Our next assumption is that challenging tasks promote maximum cognitive growth. Vygotsky described this as the zone of proximal development , or commonly referred to as ZPD. ZPD is the range of tasks that a child can perform with the help and guidance of others but cannot yet perform independently. ZPD will be discussed in more detail in another lesson.
3. The final assumption is that play allows children to stretch themselves cognitively. Play allows children to take on roles they would normally not be able to perform in real life. Let's return to our example, our same little girl who was playing with the blocks is now five years old. She's playing house with a friend. She is the mother and her friend is the child. Through make-believe play, she is able to exhibit behaviors and be a mommy according to the rules of her society. For example, a mommy takes care of her child, prepares food, etc. That would normally be impossible for a five year old in real-life to do.

Speech and Language Development

We have covered the basic assumptions of Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development, and now I want to focus, specifically, on the principles of speech and language development. According to Vygotsky, speech begins as a means of communication and socializing and later becomes a tool of thinking. His research led to the identification of four major stages of speech development.

Reading to a child can help her understand how to interpret the world within her culture

The first stage is preintellectual speech. This is the first major stage of speech development. This begins with the infant's cry, which expresses, for example, hunger or discomfort. Soon, the infant begins babbling, laughing and gesturing. These developments function as a means of social contact.
The next stage is called autonomous speech. At around 12 months of age, the child begins to invent words. The child's invented syllables are an effort to communicate with adults. These pseudo-words are useful, because they indicate an object in plain sight, and they can also facilitate limited communication with adults who understand the meanings. For example, a child may initially say 'ba' for bottle, and then as she develops, 'ba' becomes the word 'bottle'.
Our third stage is called naïve psychology. This stage of speech occurs between 18 and 24 months when the child first begins to use adult words. The child learns that objects are referred to by name. As the child begins to name things, connections develop between words and objects. During this period, the young child's first expression is a simple word. For example, when the young child says 'Dada!' it may mean 'Daddy, pick me up or' 'Daddy, I'm hungry', and so on. As the child's thoughts become differentiated, she can formulate simple requests in the form of short and simple sentences.
The final stage is communicative and egocentric speech. As indicated in the description of naïve psychology, the child between 18 and 24 months begins to use adult words and rapidly expand his or her vocabulary. Subsequently, at about age three, the child's speech splits into two types of speech: communicative and egocentric. Communicative, or also referred to as external speech, is for others and the child at age three is able to use simple sentences, such as 'I want milk.' In contrast, egocentric speech is for oneself.

Children use autonomous speech to attempt communication with adults

From about the age of three to seven, there's a lengthy period of the development of egocentric speech. Egocentric speech often occurs in the presence of other children involved in the same activity, such as playing house together. It also occurs when the child is engaged in a practical tool using activity. An example is attempting to get a cookie from the top of a cabinet. In these activities, the child's talk is a monologue; it is not intended to be a communicative form of speech. For example, our child wants to reach a cookie from the high cabinet. She may say to herself, 'I'm going to push this chair and climb up to get the cookie'. She is not necessarily communicating with anyone; she is simply stating these directions for herself. This is also referred to as self-talk. Self-talk guides a child through a task.
During the preschool period, egocentric speech becomes increasingly abbreviated. Vocalization eventually ends, and egocentric speech moves inward as inner speech, or communicative speech. This is defined as the process of talking to oneself mentally rather than out loud. It is a silent form of verbal thinking. However, it does not become fully functional until after age 12. The psychological nature of inner speech is important because it represents the most advanced level of the relationship between speech and thinking.

Lesson Summary

So, in summary, Vygotsky's theory is guided by six major assumptions. Children develop through informal and formal conversations with adults. The first few years of life are critical for development, as this is where thought and language become increasingly independent. Complex mental activities begin as basic social activities. Children can perform more difficult tasks with the help of a more advanced individual. Tasks that are challenging promote cognitive development growth. And finally, play is important and allows children to stretch themselves cognitively. Vygotsky maintained that speech is a major psychological tool in the child's development of thinking. As the child ages and develops, his or her basic speech becomes more complex.

Teacher Organization

Teaching is a profession that requires organization. When setting up organizational systems, it is important for a teacher to keep in mind the three Ps: physical space, paperwork, and planning. Staying organized in these areas contributes to a successful teaching experience.

Teacher Organization Tips

A young teacher, Ms. Bloom, enters her new classroom. She has a list of her students' names, district-provided curriculum for core subject areas, student desks, and that's about it. She knows she needs to get herself organized and prepared for her students' arrival, but has so much to do, she doesn't even know where to start. Ms. Bloom tries to prioritize, but as she starts unloading supplies, she begins to feel like she's in over her head. She asks for some organizational tips from veteran teachers, and by the time her students arrive, Ms. Bloom feels confident in her classroom setup, systems, and schedule. She finally feels prepared.
Teaching requires organization. Organizational systems vary from one teacher to the next, and what works in one classroom may not work in another one. However, teachers need to maintain organization, in order for their classrooms to run smoothly and efficiently. Classroom organization can be broken down into the three categories that can be referred to as the three Ps: planning, paperwork, and physical space. If a teacher plans effectively, stays on top of paperwork, and has a well-designed physical space, the classroom will run more smoothly than one that is lacking organization. Organizing the 3Ps contribute to a well-structured, productive classroom.

Planning

Teachers are generally busy. They have students in their classrooms all day, and when they're not with students, they are attending meetings, planning and reflecting upon lessons, running copies, and looking for areas where their students need more work, among other things. Keeping an up-to-date schedule and planning instruction, at least a week in advance, can help teachers stay organized. A desk calendar is an easy, visual way to keep track of important dates and schedule changes. Planning instruction a week in advance is important, because it encourages teachers to keep students progressing at a rigorous pace. While planning lessons in advance is important, teachers also need to have a certain degree of flexibility, because some concepts could take less time for students to master, while other concepts take more time.
Another suggestion when planning, is to use crates and hanging folders, labeled for each subject area. Worksheets, lessons, and activities addressing each concept could be kept in each folder and easily accessed. File cabinets could be used in the same way, and 3-ring binders filled with lessons in different subject areas, provide an additional option for organizing materials and make planning more efficient.

Labeled 3-ring binders are excellent organizational tools.

Paperwork

Between keeping track of assignments and permission slips, writing weekly newsletters, grading, and all of the other tasks they are responsible for, teachers have a great deal of paperwork. It is easy to fall behind in paperwork, but some simple systems can help teachers stay organized. When it comes to turning in homework and assignments, one simple and inexpensive system involves turn-in folders. Laminate a class list, and glue it on the front of a folder. As students come into class, they turn in their assignments and put check marks next to their names with dry erase markers. Teachers could use folders for each individual subject, homework and permission slips.

Homework checklists help keep track of which students are turning in their work.

These folders could then be used to transfer information to assignment charts, which are visual tools, used to keep track of missing and completed work. It's important to stay on top of assignments and grading, because falling behind can be overwhelming, and it can be difficult to get back on track.
Assignments are completed each day, in every subject area, so it's helpful to have a system to get graded assignments returned to students, and keep clutter out of the classroom. Cardboard mailboxes, available at many educational supply stores, are very useful when distributing papers in an organized manner. Another option, similar to a mailbox, is an over-the-door plastic shoe organizer, labeled with students' names. Shoe organizers are inexpensive, convenient, and save counter space, so they are ideal for many teachers.

Physical Space

Setting up a classroom to utilize the physical space most effectively is incredibly important. The age of students, number of desks, and space to move around the room all need to be taken into consideration, when setting up a physical space. In the elementary school classroom, teachers generally teach all subject areas, including reading, writing, math, social studies, and science. If possible, it is helpful to break the room up into sections, for each subject area. For example, one corner of the room could be the reading corner. Books, bean bags or comfortable seats, and reading centers could be kept in this part of the classroom.
Similar setups could be used for each of the other subject areas. For math, have a section of the room dedicated to math vocabulary, posters, calendars, numbers, etc. It would be best to keep all math-related books, tools, and manipulatives (such as calculators, graph paper, clocks, blocks, 3-dimensional shapes, and math games) in the designated math area. When students know exactly where to go to get supplies for each subject area, transitions are smoother and more efficient.

A math wall, full of subject-specific posters, acts as a resource for students.

Organizing classroom supplies is also important in maintaining an orderly classroom. If students sit at tables, or groups of desks, a teacher could leave a shower caddy full of pencils, pens, markers, scissors, glue, and other supplies at each table. Another suggestion is keeping regularly used supplies in labeled boxes. Having supplies readily available, and in close proximity to students minimizes transition times and helps them get to work more quickly.

Lesson Summary

Organization in the classroom is essential. While getting organized takes time and practice, teachers must find a system that works for them, in order to maintain a well-run classroom. It is important for teachers to stay on top of planning, in order to keep themselves organized and on-track with goals. They must implement systems that help them keep up-to-date with paperwork and return papers to students in a timely manner. Finally, teachers benefit from organizing their physical spaces so that their classrooms have well-defined areas for various subjects, and easily accessible supplies. If a teacher masters the three Ps, that teacher will likely have an organized, productive classroom.

Teacher Burnout

Many teachers may debate Neil Young's statement: 'It's better to burn out, then to fade away.' This lesson will highlight causes and symptoms of teacher burnout. A short quiz will follow to test your knowledge.

Causes of Teacher Burnout

Many new and veteran teachers leave the profession each year because of the job-related stress caused by everything from student behavior to lack of administrative support. Knowing the causes and symptoms of burnout may help schools and school districts create action plans to decrease the amount of stress experienced by teachers each year.
The phrase burnout means that an employee is experiencing some sort of job-related stress that is impacting his ability to perform his duties. There are many causes of teacher burnout, more than can be covered in this short lesson. However, there are a couple of prime candidates that top the list when it comes to setting teachers on a downward spiral:

• Classroom management issues
• Poor morale
• Paperwork overload

Classroom management issues:
Show me a classroom that is out of control and I'll show you a teacher who is probably experiencing high levels of stress. Not much instruction is being accomplished in a chaotic classroom environment. The teacher will become disillusioned about the time wasted on lesson planning and gathering of resources from which the students will never benefit. Without a proper plan in place for disruptive behavior, a teacher in a poorly managed classroom will not very likely last until the end of the school year with her sanity intact.
Poor morale:
We all want to feel appreciated for what we do … even when we say we don't. The term morale refers to one's feelings of self-worth or appreciation. Low wages and accountability as well as lack of support from administrators, parents and the community can negatively impact how teacher's view themselves as professionals. When teachers do not feel appreciated, it can cause them to exhibit feelings of depression, resentment and hopelessness.
Paperwork overload:
Many teachers complain that quite a bit of their time is spent on paperwork. With more emphasis being placed on accountability for student achievement, many districts are requiring teachers to show more documentation about how they are supporting student development. Limited planning time and responsibilities outside of school time can cause the barrage of paperwork to become overwhelming.

Symptoms of Teacher Burnout

The signs of a teacher experiencing burnout may not always be apparent. However, the following are signs that may be readily recognizable in a teacher who is in a state of distress:

• Missed days

Some teachers refer to this as 'taking mental health days.' While days missed are not necessarily a red flag at the basic level, when teachers start to miss multiple days, it can be a sign that they are at their wit's end. No one wants to go to a job that they do not have a passion for doing, and teaching is no exception.

• Bad teacher

A snappy, grouchy teacher is a pretty scary concept, especially when you think about the impact it will have on the students in the classroom (think Cameron Diaz in Bad Teacher). Everybody has bad days but the teacher who is always on edge is probably a good candidate for burnout.

• Lackluster performance

Good teachers are generally happy teachers who love their profession and are dedicated to the students. You will likely see the results of their efforts in student achievement. Miserable teachers are normally not equated with good teaching because their passion flame has been extinguished. They will do just enough to make it through the school year and complain all year long about needing to find another job.

Avoiding Teacher Burnout

Many districts and schools have action plans in place that are designed to decrease the chances of burnout among their teachers. Some offer free counseling, massages or yoga sessions. Others have teacher appreciation days scattered throughout the school year in addition to the teacher appreciation week in which teachers are recognized for their service and commitment to education. Substitute teachers are contracted one day per quarter, in some schools, so that teachers can have the day to plan without feeling the crunch of limited planning time between instructional periods.

Lesson Summary

Teacher burnout can be caused by a number of factors, including lack of classroom management, poor morale and large amounts of paperwork. Signs of burnout may include, but are not limited to, missed work days, irritability or moodiness and a less than stellar performance in the classroom. Burnout can be avoided with schools and districts creating action plans designed to decrease and eliminate those factors that contribute to teacher stress.